Studies & Reports

Full title: Benchmarking the socio-economic performance of the EU social economy. Improving the socio-economic knowledge of the proximity and social economy ecosystem  

This report summarises the findings of the project ‘Benchmarking the socio-economic performance of the EU social economy’. Across the 27 Member States, the social economy includes more than 4.3 million entities. Social economy entities are mainly cooperatives, mutual benefit societies, associations and foundations. Within these figures, there are more than 246 000 social enterprises, of which almost 43 000 are ex lege and over 203 000 are de facto social enterprises. At least 11.5 million people3 – 6.3% of the employed population in the EU – are occupied in the social economy. More than 6.2 million people (54%) are employed in associations and 3.3 million (29%) in cooperatives. Social enterprises employ at least 3.9 million people. At least 3.3 million people are employed in the health and social care sector, a further 702 000 in education and 622 000 in arts, culture and entertainment. Even if data on female employment is not always available, the share of female employment can be expected to be rather high. In Belgium and Portugal, women account for more than 70% of employment in the social economy, while in France, Poland and Italy the shares are 66%, 60% and 46%, respectively. The revenues generated by the social economy accounted at least for a turnover of EUR 912 billion in 2021. France, Italy, Spain and Finland account for the largest cooperative sectors in terms of turnover, predominantly driven by agricultural, consumer and worker cooperatives. France and Germany register the highest turnover for associations, foundations and mutuals. The social economy plays an important role in other industrial ecosystems. Its contribution to the health ecosystem is significant. It is also well positioned in the agri-food, retail and energy-renewables ecosystems, while it is emerging in the cultural and creative industries and in the tourism ecosystem. The capacity of the social economy to influence policies is very diverse, ranging from almost insignificant in some ecosystems (e.g. tourism) to extremely relevant (e.g. health, energy-renewables). Information about publication

The characteristics of social enterprises differ a lot from country to country concerning their number, size, legal forms and fields of activities. To create a clearer picture, the Commission has carried out a series of studies, mapping the reality of social enterprises in the 35 European countries using a common definition and approach. This EU level synthesis report collates and interprets the key findings from country reports and draws a European picture of social enterprises and the environments in which they operate, the “ecosystems”. The report brings together a comprehensive picture of different country traditions, salient trends and key challenges across Europe. The separate country reports provide key data on social enterprises and their eco-systems, including factors constraining their development. An executive summary is also available in English, French and German

In 2011, the European Commission presented the Social Business Initiative (SBI) which established an EU level action plan with concrete measures to establish a favourable environment for social enterprises (SE). This study analyses the impact of the SBI on the development of social enterprises/social economy and their operating environments at national and EU levels. The study also includes an analysis of current needs and concludes with options for future policy initiatives.

The report assesses the state of play of the application of the Statute for a European Cooperative Society in the 30 EU/EEA Member States pursuing three interconnected aims: 

• to map the existing SCEs in EU/EEA; 
• to understand the factors affecting the establishment of an SCE; 
• to provide a set of recommendations for further policy actions.

Social impact measurement and management is a particularly helpful practice for social economy entities to understand their contribution to society and potentially improve the achievement of their mission. Impact areas that are particularly important for the social economy, such as economic prosperity and employment, social inclusion and well-being and community, are often the hardest to translate into quantitative metrics. Current social impact measurement and management practices are largely shaped by funders and for-profits with limited focus on the social economy. This guide offers a simple, straightforward approach for social economy entities to measure, manage and ultimately maximise their impact, and to prioritise the use of findings for strategic organisational learning and improvement.

This paper provides a framework to clarify the core notions of the social and solidarity economy, along with social economy, social enterprise, social innovation and other related notions. The objective is to explain what they are and understand how these notions have evolved in recent decades. It also aims to capture and document the great diversity within social and solidarity economy organisations in terms of purposes, legal entities, business models and practices to help better characterise the “population” of social and solidarity economy entities.

This paper explores the potential of procurement from the social and solidarity economy in creating social dividends, takes stock of global trends in social procurement among both public and private buyers, identifies challenges in access to markets for social and solidarity economy entities, and provides concrete recommendations for policy makers on how to overcome them.

Building on strong local roots to address local development challenges, many social and solidarity economy (SSE) entities are increasingly extending their operations internationally. By responding to international social and environmental challenges, SSE entities can help make global value chains more inclusive and sustainable. With the pursuit of a social mission and participatory governance at the core of their operations, SSE entities adopt specific approaches to internationalise their presence. Some internationalise to scale their impact to reach more people and areas, while some do so to deepen their impact on existing target groups by leveraging resources internationally. This paper analyses what SSE internationalisation involves and its specific drivers (chapter 1), trends in SSE internationalisation (chapter 2), competitive advantages and barriers of the SSE for internationalisation (chapter 3), and actionable areas for policy makers to promote its internationalisation (chapter 4).

This policy paper explores the contribution of platform cooperatives to local development as an alternative model to conventional digital platforms. It considers their role in reducing potential negative effects of the digital transition on local communities and places, as well as the new opportunities they present to provide greater quality of life for local residents. The paper introduces the main features of platform cooperatives, explores their contributions to local development and identifies the challenges to their emergence and expansion. It then provides policy orientations that could support the development of platform cooperatives and enhance their contributions to local development.

Platform cooperatives refer to cooperatives that are directly owned and managed by their members and that use websites and/or mobile apps to sell goods and/or services. They have emerged in large part as alternatives to digital labour platforms to promote better working conditions with evidence of significant growth in recent years.

This paper provides an overview of employment in platform cooperatives and offers insights on their distinctive features. In particular, it provides i) insights on working conditions associated with such platforms; ii) an overview on the challenges they face in creating jobs as well as scaling up, developing and expanding their activity; and iii) policy recommendations and examples of policy actions that could help policy makers best support them to generate work opportunities and enhance job quality.

Building on many data sources and country examples on women’s employment in the social and solidarity economy (SSE) the report: i) analyses women’s employment in the SSE, ii) explores challenges to gender equality in the SSE and, iii) provides policy recommendations to recognise women’s work and leadership in the SSE and in the wider economy. It also suggests ways to foster their participation in high-growth sectors within the SSE, such as technology-intensive and green sectors. Published on March 20, 2023 In series: OECD Local Economic and Employment Development (LEED) Papers Link to OECD page

The Policy Guide on Legal Frameworks for the Social and Solidarity Economy aims to support countries, regions and cities wishing to use legal frameworks as an appropriate lever to develop conducive social and solidarity economy (SSE) ecosystems. Building on data and information as well as good practice examples from over 33 countries, it provides step-by-step guidance, success factors and "pitfalls to avoid" to help policy makers i) assess why and when legal frameworks for the SSE are needed; ii) select legal options and involve stakeholders; iii) evaluate the performance of laws, and, iv) foster international peer learning on this topic. The guide also capitalises on learnings from the scoping paper on Legal frameworks for the social and solidarity economy, prepared as part of the OECD Global Action “Promoting Social and Solidarity Economy Ecosystems”, funded by the European Union’s Foreign Partnership Instrument and Designing Legal Frameworks for Social Enterprises: Practical Guidance for Policy Makers. OECD publication details

 

As social and solidarity economy (SSE) entities are increasingly requested to demonstrate their positive contribution to society, social impact measurement can help them understand the additional, net value generated by their activities, in the pursuit of their mission and beyond. Policy plays an important role to facilitate a conducive environment to unlock the uptake of social impact measurement among SSE actors. Drawing on a mapping exercise and good practice examples from over 33 countries, this international policy guide navigates how policy makers can support social impact measurement for the social and solidarity economy by: (i) improving the policy framework, (ii) delivering guidance, (iii) building evidence and (iv) supporting capacity. Building on the earlier publication Social Impact Measurement for the Social and Solidarity Economy released in 2021 the guide is published under the framework of the OECD Global Action “Promoting Social and Solidarity Economy Ecosystems”, funded by the European Union’s Foreign Partnership Instrument. OECD publication details

The OECD Global Action “Promoting Social and Solidarity Economy Ecosystems”, funded by the European Union, through its work stream on legal frameworks, endeavours to: 1) increase knowledge and understanding on legal frameworks for the social and solidarity economy; 2) explore approaches and trends of legal frameworks to regulate the social and solidarity economy as a whole and social economy organisations; and 3) understand how legal frameworks can be used to promote and develop the social and solidarity economy in different contexts. This paper defines the legal notions, traditions and approaches to better understand legal frameworks that regulate the field. It presents and analyses the diversity, relevance and implications of legal frameworks that regulate the social economy; takes stock of the processes that lead to their design and implementation; identifies possible criteria for assessing their performance; and highlights the cross-cutting issues and policy examples that could inspire countries. OECD publication details

Young people increasingly prioritise pursuing careers with positive social and environmental impacts. Social enterprises can help them fulfil this ambition. Youth-led social enterprises can address pressing social and environmental issues while providing young people with opportunities in the labour market. Despite these benefits, these entities often struggle due to the age of their founders and the specificities of their businesses. This paper analyses the drivers and potential benefits of youth-led social enterprises (section 1), assesses the challenges they face (section 2) and provides policy guidance to address them through tailored support programmes based on best practice examples and experiences from OECD countries and beyond (section 3). OECD document information

his policy brief on the social economy and its contribution to the circular economy was produced by the OECD and the European Commission. The brief defines concepts of both the circular and social economy and describes the potential of the social economy to support circular activities and related business models and to reinforce uptake of circularity in our economies and societies. It finally identifies policy orientations that build on the complementarity of the social and circular economies, and help the social economy support circularity and drive a green and inclusive transition. OECD publication details

The OECD Global Action “Promoting Social and Solidarity Economy Ecosystems”, funded by the European Union, through its work stream on social impact measurement, endeavours to: 1) explore current social impact measurement practices among social and solidarity economy organisations; 2) identify the methodologies best suited to capture the social benefits of the social and solidarity economy; and 3) understand what policy initiatives can be used to foster a social impact measurement culture and practice in the social and solidarity economy. After discussing the origins and drivers of social impact measurement, this paper examines existing methodologies developed at the local, national and international level and finally reviews how these are being implemented in the social and solidarity economy. It takes stock of the policy mapping exercise conducted by the OECD, which draws on responses to an online survey and on the stakeholder consultations conducted in Brazil, Canada, India, Korea, Mexico and the United States. OECD publication details

The report explores the vital role of the social economy in advancing economic equity amid green and digital transitions. Drawing insights from extensive research, literature reviews, and over 20 interviews with leaders across Europe, Africa, North America, South America, and Asia, it examines how social economy  fosters inclusivity and innovation. 

The publication outlines policy actions that governments can implement to create supportive environments for digital and green social enterprises. By driving affordability, accessibility, and job creation through community-based solutions and impact investing, the social economy empowers marginalised groups and supports a more equitable global economy. WEF publication details


 

The report delves into the European impact investing market, stemming from a comprehensive sizing exercise conducted in 2022. Spearheaded by the European Impact Investing Consortium and key partners across Europe, the report seeks to harmonize and elucidate the market's dynamics, trends, and practices. It establishes a foundational baseline for data and definitions in the sector, aiming to inform investors, policymakers, and market leaders. The publication offers critical insights to align strategies with global challenges and unlock collaboration opportunities, aiding in informed decision-making. Impact Europe publication details
 

This publication provides a comprehensive mapping of stakeholders in the microfinance and social economy finance sectors across the European Union. Since early 2022, the Microfinance Centre (MFC) has identified key international and national entities, including private, public, and non-governmental organizations, along with social finance providers, investors, support organizations, industry networks, and local authorities. As of December 2024, the updated edition offers detailed insights into these stakeholders and their activities. The MFC is dedicated to further expanding this mapping effort to deepen understanding of the social finance landscape in the coming year. MCF publication details